Direct and Indirect Speech

Direct Speech / Quoted Speech

Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech)

Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.

For example:

She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations."

or

"Today's lesson is on presentations," she said.

Indirect Speech / Reported Speech

Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word.

When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.

For example:

Direct speech                                                              indirect speech

“I’m going to the cinema”, he said                             he said he was going to the cinema

Exercise

1. ‘Which way should I go?’ asked the son.
2.  Alladin said to the magician, ‘What have I done to deserve so severe a punishment?’
3. ‘Don’t you know the way home?’ I said to her.
4. ‘Do you write a good hand?’ the teacher said to the student.
5. ‘Have you anything to say on behalf of the accused?’ said the judge finally.

Answer

1. The son asked which way he should go.
2. Alladin asked the magician what he had done to deserve so severe a punishment.
3. I asked her whether she did not know the way home.
4. The teacher asked the student if he/she wrote a good hand.
5. The judge finally asked whether he/she had anything to say on behalf of the accused

http://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/reportedspeech.htm

Adverbial Clauses

Adverbial clause

An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb. In other words, it contains a subject (explicit or implied) and a predicate, and it modifies a verb.

§  I saw Joe when I went to the store. (explicit subject I)

§  He sat quietly in order to appear polite. (implied subject he)

According to Sidney Greenbaum and Randolph Quirk, adverbial clauses function mainly as adjuncts or disjuncts. In these functions they are like adverbial phrases, but due to their potentiality for greater explicitness, they are more often like prepositional phrases (Greenbaum and Quirk,1990):

§  We left after the speeches ended. (adverbial clause)

§  We left after the end of the speeches. (adverbial prepositional phrase)

Contrast adverbial clauses with adverbial phrases, which do not contain a clause.

§  I like to fly kites for fun.

Adverbial clauses modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. For example:

§  Hardly had I reached the station when the train started to leave the platform.

The adverbial clause in this sentence is "when the train started to leave the platform" because it is a subordinate clause and because it has the trigger word (subordinate conjunction) "when".

Kinds of adverbial clauses

kind of clause	common conjunctions	function	example
time clauses	when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as, until,till, etc. (conjunctions that answer the question "when?"); hardly, scarcely, no sooner, etc.	These clauses are used to say when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event.	Her goldfish died when she was young.
conditional clauses	if, unless, lest	These clauses are used to talk about a possible or counterfactual situation and its consequences.	If they lose weight during an illness, they soon regain it afterwards.
purpose clauses	in order to, so that, in order that	These clauses are used to indicate the purpose of an action.	They had to take some of his land so that they could extend the churchyard.
reason clauses	because, since, as, given	These clauses are used to indicate the reason for something.	I couldn't feel anger against him because I liked him too much.
result clauses	so...that	These clauses are used to indicate the result of something.	My suitcase had become so damaged on the journey home that the lid would not stay closed.
concessive clauses	although, though, while	These clauses are used to make two statements, one of which contrasts with the other or makes it seem surprising.	I used to read a lot although I don't get much time for books now.
place clauses	where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere, etc. (conjunctions that answer the question "where?")	These clauses are used to talk about the location or position of something.	He said he was happy where he was.
clauses of manner	as, like, the way	These clauses are used to talk about someone's behaviour or the way something is done.	I was never allowed to do things as I wanted to do them.

exercise 

1.  Under the government of William Penn, the roads of Pennsylvania were given over to the county courts, which appointed overseers, __________.

a. while the grand jury laid out the roads

b. unless the grand jury laid them out the roads

c. nevertheless, the grand jury laid out the roads

d. because of the grand jury laid out the roads

answer :A

2.  Lookout ridges are of little value __________ there is no way to get to it quickly because of a lack of trails, or no way to call for immediate help.

a. if after the fire is discovered

b. if the fire is discovered

c. after the fire is discovered

d. at which the fire is discovered

answer :A

3.  ___________ --it may in extreme cases occupy almost half the shell--the egg is known as "shrunken."

a. After the air space inside an egg pronounces it

b. While the air space inside an egg is pronouncing it

c. When the air space inside an egg becomes pronounced

d. Unless the air space inside an egg pronounces it

answer C

source : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverbial_clause